Shopping on line can be easy, simple and save you lots of money. It can also take a lot of your time, frustrate you, and result in unwanted purchases. Now the same can be said for regular high street shopping, but with the vast opportunity presented by the Internet it will pay you to spend a few minutes reading this and understanding how to better optimize your Sri Lanka shopping experience:
1. Compare - without doubt the biggest advantage that the Sri Lanka offers shoppers today is the ability to compare thousands of Sri Lanka at a time. This is a great thing, but not necessarily all the time! Too much can be daunting at times so take advantage of the great comparison sites and where possible let them do the hard work for you.
2. Research - if it has been said it will be on the internet. Ignorance is no longer a justifiable reason for buying the wrong thing. Take the time to research in detail everything that you could possible want to know about
3. Testimonials - don't know anybody that has bought a Sri Lanka? Wrong! If the Sri Lanka is good the internet will let you know. Use the Internet as a friend and get testimonials before you buy.
4. Questions - Got a question about Sri Lanka then search the Forums, FAQ's, Blogs etc. Don't be afraid to ask .....
5. Reputation - Never heard of the company selling Sri Lanka? Don't worry, no reason why you should know every company in the world, but you know someone that does! Use the internet to find out what people are saying about Sri Lanka and build up a picture of their reputation for sales, returns, customer service, delivery etc.
6. Returns - still worried that even after all of the above your Sri Lanka wont be what you want? Check out the returns policy. There is so much competition now that someone, somewhere is bound to offer the terms that you are comfortable with.
7. Feedback - happy with your Sri Lanka then let people know, after all you are depending on others people input in your buying decision, so why not give a little back.
8. Security - check for the yellow padlock on the Sri Lanka site before you buy, and the s after http:/ /i.e. https:// = a secure site
9. Contact - got a question about Sri Lanka, or want to leave a comment then check out the sites contact page. Reputable companies have them and respond.
10. Payment - ready to pay for your Sri Lanka, then use your credit card or PayPal! Be aware of companies that don't accept them, there may be genuine reasons but given the huge amount of choice you have when buying online there is no reason at all not to buy via credit card or PayPal.
{{Infobox Country or territory|native_name =
இலங்கை ஜனநாயக சமத்துவ குடியரசு|conventional_long_name = Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka|common_name = Sri Lanka|image_flag = Flag of Sri Lanka.svg|image_coat = COA of Sri Lanka.svg|image_map = LocationSriLanka.png|national_motto =|national_anthem = "Sri Lanka Matha" , ], Tamil language|capital = Sri Jayawardenapura|latd=6 |latm=54 |latNS=N |longd=79 |longm=54 |longEW=E|largest_city =
Colombo [Republic|leader_name1 = [Mahinda Rajapaksa|leader_name2 = [Ratnasiri Wickremanayake|sovereignty_note = from the [United Kingdom|established_date1 = [February 4 1948|established_date2 = [May 22 1972-->|percent_water = 4.4|population_estimate = 19,668,000
Department of Census and Statistics Estimated mid year population by sex and age, 2003 - 2005|population_estimate_rank = 52nd|population_estimate_year = 2005|population_census = 18,732,255|population_census_year = 2001|population_density_km2 = 310|population_density_sq_mi = 818 |currency_code = LKR|country_code = LKA|time_zone =|utc_offset = +5:30|time_zone_DST =|utc_offset_DST =|cctld =
.lk: , ; known as Ceylon before 1972) is an [island nation in
South Asia, located about 31 kilometers (18½
mile) off the southern coast of India. Popularly referred to as the
Pearl of the Indian Ocean,
Pearl of the Indian Ocean, The Sunday Tribune
it is home to around twenty million people.Due to its location in the path of major sea routes, Sri Lanka is a strategic naval link between
West Asia and
South East Asia, and has been a center of Buddhism religion and culture from Ancient history. Today, the country is a multi-religious and multi-ethnic nation, with a quarter of the population following faiths other than Buddhism, notably
Hinduism,
Christianity and Islam. The
Sinhalese people community forms the majority of the population, with
Tamils, who are mostly concentrated in the north and east of the island, forming the largest
Minority group. Other communities include the Muslim
Sri Lankan Moors and Malay race as well as
Burgher people.
Famous for the production and export of tea, coffee,
rubber and coconuts, Sri Lanka boasts a progressive and modern industrial economy. The natural beauty of Sri Lanka's
tropical forests, beaches and landscape, as well as its rich cultural heritage, make it a world famous
tourism destination.
After over two thousand years of rule by local kingdoms, parts of Sri Lanka were colonized by
Portugal and the Netherlands beginning in the 16th century, before the control of the entire country was ceded to the British Empire in 1815. During World War II Sri Lanka served as an important base for
Allies in the fight against the
Empire of Japan.British Prime Minister Winston Churchill described the moment a Japanese fleet prepared to invade Sri Lanka as "the most dangerous and distressing moment of the entire conflict." -
Commonwealth Air Training Program Museum, The Saviour of Ceylon A Sri Lanka Independence Struggle arose in the country in the early 20th century, with the aim of obtaining political independence, which was eventually granted by the British after peaceful negotiations in 1948. Since then Sri Lanka has enjoyed a stable democracy"
..Regarding human rights and humanitarian issues, despite the ongoing conflict, Sri Lanka is a fully functioning, stable democracy with strong democratic institutions and traditions, including freedom of the press. The November 2005 presidential election was deemed by international monitors to be free and fair, although an LTTE boycott of the elections prevented voters in LTTE-controlled areas from going to the polls.." -
United States Department of State, Internal Unrest in South Asia: Recent Developments in Nepal and Sri Lanka and continuous economic progress,"
..With an income per head of $1,350, almost twice India's, it is a bright star of South Asian development. Its economy grew by an average of 5% during the 1990s, even as the war raged. It grew by around 7% last year, when the war was re-ignited after an unprecedented three-year pause. And this growth also came despite the devastating tsunami of December 2004, in which 35,000 Sri Lankans died. What is more, Sri Lanka is an unusually delightful war-torn country. Half a million tourists last year (2006) are a sign of that.." -
The Economist, A war strange as fiction"
..The recent escalation in fighting in Sri Lanka has not derailed the nation’s economy, with the island on track to record its fastest growth in nearly three decades.." -
AFP, Sri Lanka set for record growth despite conflict despite the ongoing Sri Lankan Civil War with a separatist militant group known as the
LTTE in northeastern parts of the country.
Name
In ancient times, Sri Lanka Geographical renaming by a variety of names: ancient Greek geographers called it
Taprobane and Arabs referred to it as
Serendib (the origin of the word "
serendipity").
Ceilão was the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived on the island in 1505, which was transliterated into English as
Ceylon. In 1972, the official
name of the country was changed to "
Freedom (philosophy),
Sovereignty and
Independent (nation) Republic of Sri Lanka" (in Sinhala language
śrī laṃkā, ; whereas the island itself is referred to as ලංකාව
laṃkāva, , in
Tamil language இலங்கை
ilaṅkai, ). In 1978 it was changed to "Democratic Socialism Republic of Sri Lanka".
The current name is derived from
Sanskrit word
laṃkā, meaning "resplendent land", which was also the name of the island as described in the ancient Indian epics
Mahabharata and the
Ramayana.
History
fresco.Paleolithic human settlements have been discovered at excavations in several cave sites in the Western Plains region and the South-western face of the Central Hills region. anthropologys believe that some discovered burial rites and certain decorative artifacts exhibit similarities between the first inhabitants of the island and the early inhabitants of
South India. Recent bioanthropological studies have however dismissed these links, and have placed the origin of the people to the northern parts of India. One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana, which described the emperor
Ravana as monarch of the powerful kingdom of
Lanka, which was created by the divine sculptor Vishwakarma for
Kubera, the treasurer of the Gods.{{cite book | last = Keshavadas
| first = Sant
| authorlink = Sant Keshavadas
| title = Ramayana at a Glance
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass
| year = 1988
| isbn = 8120805453
--> English historian
James Emerson Tennent also theorized Galle, a southern city in Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of
Tarshish from which King Solomon is said to have drawn ivory, peacocks and other valuables. The main written accounts of the country's history are the Buddhist chronicles of Mahavansa and Dipavamsa.
The earliest-known inhabitants of the island now known as Sri Lanka were probably the ancestors of the
Wanniyala-Aetto people, also known as
Veddahs and numbering roughly 3,000. Linguistic analysis has found a correlation of the Sinhalese language with the languages of the Sindh and Gujarat, although most historians believe that the Sinhala community emerged well after the assimilation of various
ethnic groups. From the ancient period date some remarkable archaeological sites including the ruins of Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", and huge public works. Among the latter are large "tanks" or
reservoir (water)s, important for conserving water in a climate that alternates rainy seasons with dry times, and elaborate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile. Ancient Sri Lanka was also the first in the world to have established a dedicated hospital in Mihintale in the 4th century BCE. Ancient Sri Lanka was also the world's leading exporter of cinnamon, which was exported to Egypt as early as 1400
Common Era. Sri Lanka was also the first Asian nation to have a female ruler in Queen Anula (47–42 BC)
Since ancient times Sri Lanka was ruled by monarchs, most notably of the Sinha royal dynasty that lasted over 2000 years. The island was also infrequently invaded by South Indian kingdoms and parts of the island were ruled intermittently by the Chola dynasty, the
Pandya dynasty, the
Chera dynasty and the
Pallava dynasty. The island was also invaded by the kingdoms of
Kalinga (India) (modern
Orissa) and those from the Malay Peninsula.
Buddhism arrived from India in the 3rd century BCE, brought by
Bhikkhu Mahinda, who is believed to have been the son of
Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Mahinda's mission won over the Sinhalese monarch Devanampiyatissa of Mihintale, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population. The Buddhist kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of
Schools of Buddhism and monasteries, and support the propagation of Buddhism into
Southeast Asia.
Sri Lanka had always been an important port and trading post in the ancient world, and was increasingly frequented by
Cargo ship from the
Middle East,
Persia, Burma,
Thailand,
Malaysia, Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia. The islands were known to the first European explorers of South Asia and settled by many groups of Arab and Malay merchants. A
Portugal colonial mission arrived on the island in 1505 headed by the
Lourenço de Almeida the son of
Francisco de Almeida. At that point the island consisted of three kingdoms, namely
Kandy in the central hills, Kotte at the Western coast, and Yarlpanam (Anglicised Jaffna) in the north. The Dutch East India Company arrived in the 17th century. Although much of the island came under the domain of European powers, the interior, hilly region of the island remained independent, with its capital in Kandy. The
British East India Company established control of the island in 1796, declaring it a crown colony in 1802, although the island would not be officially connected with British India. The fall of the kingdom of Kandy in 1815 unified the island under British rule.
European colonists established a series of
tea,
cinnamon, rubber, sugar,
coffee and
indigo plantations. The British also brought a large number of indentured labour from
Tamil Nadu to work in the plantation economy. The city of
Colombo was established as the administrative centre, and the British established modern schools, colleges, roads and churches that brought Western-style education and culture to the
Indigenous peoples. Increasing grievances over the denial of
civil rights, mistreatment and abuse of natives by colonial authorities gave rise to a Sri Lanka Independence Struggle in the 1930s, when the
Youth Leagues opposed the "Ministers' Memorandum," which asked the colonial authority to increase the powers of the board of ministers without granting popular representation or civil freedoms. During World War II, the island served as an important Allied military base. A large segment of the British and American fleet were deployed on the island, as were tens of thousands of soldiers committed to the war against Japan in Southeast Asia.
Following the war, popular pressure for independence intensified. On February 4, 1948 the country won its independence as the Commonwealth of Ceylon.
Don Stephen Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Sri Lanka. In 1972, the country became a
republic within the Commonwealth, and the name was changed to Sri Lanka. On July 21,
1960 Sirimavo Bandaranaike took office as prime minister, and became the first female
head of government in post-colonial Asia and the first female prime minister in the world. The island enjoyed good relations with the United Kingdom and had the
Royal Navy stationed at Trincomalee.
Since 1983, there has been on-and-off Sri Lankan Civil War, predominantly between the
Government of Sri Lanka and the
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE, also known as the Tamil Tigers), a Separatism militant organization who fight to create an
Independence state named Tamil Eelam in the Northern Province, Sri Lanka and Eastern Province, Sri Lanka of the island.
Geography and climate
The island of Sri Lanka lies in the
Indian Ocean, to the southwest of the
Bay of Bengal and to the southeast of the
Arabian Sea. It is separated from the
Indian subcontinent by the
Gulf of Mannar and the
Palk Strait.
BBC News, Gods row minister offers to quit, September 15, 2007 According to
Hindu mythology, a land bridge to the Indian mainland, known as
Rama's Bridge, was constructed during the time of Rama by the
vanara architect Nala. Often referred to as Adam's Bridge, it now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above
sea level. According to colonial British reports, this is a natural causeway which was formerly complete, but was breached by a
Violent Storm in 1480.
Rediff, Ramar Sethu, a world heritage centre?, July 4, 2007 The width of the Palk Strait is small enough for the coast of Sri Lanka to be visible from the furthest point near the Indian town of
Rameswaram. The pear-shaped island consists mostly of flat-to-rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. Amongst these are Sri Pada (Adams Peak) and the highest point
Pidurutalagala, at 2,524 meters (8,281 ft). The
Mahaweli ganga (Mahaweli river) and other major rivers provide fresh water to the population. -->
Sri Lanka's climate can be described as tropical, and quite hot. Its position between 5 and 10 north latitude endows the country with a warm climate, moderated by ocean winds and considerable moisture.
BBC Weather'\, Country Guide: Sri LankaThe mean temperature ranges from a low of in
Nuwara Eliya in the Central Highlands (where frost may occur for several days in the winter) to a high of in Trincomalee on the northeast coast (where temperatures may reach ). The average yearly temperature for the country as a whole ranges from 28° to 30 °C (82–86 °F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 4 to 7 °C (7–13 °F). In January, the coolest month, many people wear coats and sweaters in the highlands and elsewhere. May, the hottest period, precedes the summer monsoon rains. The rainfall pattern is influenced by the monsoon winds of the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, which encounter the slopes of the
Central Highlands, they unload heavy rains on the mountain slopes and the southwestern sector of the island. Some of the windward slopes receive up to of rain per month, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical cyclones bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Between December to March, monsoon winds come from the northeast, bringing moisture from the Bay of Bengal. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall. At Colombo, for example, daytime humidity stays above 70% all year, rising to almost 90 percent during the Monsoon in June. Anuradhapura experiences a daytime low of 60% during the monsoon month of March, but a high of 79% during the November and December rains. In the highlands, Kandy's daytime humidity usually ranges between 70 and 79%.
Flora and fauna
The mountains and the southwestern part of the country, known as the "wet zone," receive ample rainfall (an annual average of 2500 millimetres). Most of the southeast, east, and northern parts of the country comprise the "dry zone," which receives between 1200 and 1900 mm (47–75 in) of rain annually. Much of the rain in these areas falls from October to January; during the rest of the year there is very little precipitation, and all living creatures must conserve precious moisture. The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain — 600 to 1200 mm (24–47 in) per year — However, though many say that there are no really dry areas in Sri Lanka, there are many pockets of very dry and abandoned areas where there is little to no rainwater. Varieties of flowering
acacias are well adapted to the arid conditions and flourish on the Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry-land forests are some valuable species, such as
satinwood, ebony,
ironwood, and
mahogany. In the wet zone, the dominant vegetation of the lowlands is a tropical
evergreen forest, with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers.
Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of Temperate flourish in the higher altitudes. Forests at one time covered nearly the entire island, but by the late 20th century lands classified as forests and forest reserves covered around one-third of the land.
EarthTrends, Environmental Information, Forests, Grasslands, and Drylands-- Sri Lanka As the area covered by forests declined, thereby threatening various species of wildlife, Sri Lanka became the first country in the world to establish a wildlife sanctuary.
Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society, Among them, the
Ruhunu National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks, and the Wilpattu
National park in the northwest preserves the habitats of many water birds, such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. During the Mahaweli Ganga Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totaling as national parks. The island has three
biosphere reserves,
Hurulu, Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve, and the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya.
The national flower of Sri Lanka is Nil Manel (
Nymphaea stelleta),
Government of Sri Lanka Official Web Portal, National Flower the national tree is Na (tree) (
Mesua nagassarium)
Government of Sri Lanka Official Web Portal, National Tree and the national bird is the Sri Lanka Junglefowl, which is endemic to the country.
Government of Sri Lanka Official Web Portal, National Bird
Government and politics
The
Constitution of Sri Lanka establishes a
democratic,
socialist republic in Sri Lanka, which is also a
unitary state. The government is a mixture of the
presidential system and the parliamentary system. The
President of Sri Lanka is the head of state, the
commander in chief of the
Military of Sri Lanka, as well as
head of government, and is popularly elected for a six-year term. In the exercise of duties, the President is responsible to the Parliament of Sri Lanka, which is a unicameral 225-member
legislature. The President appoints and heads a
cabinet of
Minister (government)s composed of elected Member of Parliament. The President's deputy is the prime minister of Sri Lanka, who leads the ruling party in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.
Members of parliament are elected by universal (adult) suffrage based on a modified proportional representation system by district to a six-year term. The primary modification is that, the party that receives the largest number of valid votes in each constituency gains a unique "bonus seat." The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after it has served for one year. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws. On July 1, 1960 the people of Sri Lanka elected the first-ever female head of government in Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike. Her daughter
Chandrika Kumaratunga served multiple terms as prime minister and as president from 1999 to 2005. The current president and prime minister, both of whom took office on November 21, 2005, are Mahinda Rajapaksa and Ratnasiri Wickremanayake respectively.
Sri Lanka has enjoyed the longest period of continuous multi-party
democracy with universal suffrage in a non-western country (since 1931). Politics in Sri Lanka are controlled by rival coalitions led by the left-wing Sri Lanka Freedom Party, headed by President Rajapaksa, the comparatively right-wing
United National Party led by former prime minister Ranil Wickremesinghe and
Marxist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna. There are also many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties that oppose the
separatism of the
LTTE but demand regional autonomy and increased civil rights. Since 1948, Sri Lanka has been a member of the
Commonwealth of Nations and the
United Nations. It is also a member of the
Non-Aligned Movement, the
Colombo Plan, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. Through the
Cold War-era, Sri Lanka followed a foreign policy of non-alignment but has remained closer to the
United States and Western Europe. The
military of Sri Lanka comprises the
Sri Lankan Army, the
Sri Lankan Navy and the
Sri Lankan Air Force. These are administered by the
Ministry of Defence (Sri Lanka). Since the 1980s, the army has led the government response against the
Marxist militants of the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna and now the LTTE militant forces. Sri Lanka receives considerable military assistance from Pakistan and China .
Administrative divisions
Sri Lanka is divided into 9
Provinces of Sri LankaConstitution of Sri Lanka, Eighth Schedule and 25 Districts of Sri Lanka.
Constitution of Sri Lanka, First Schedule Each province is administered by a directly-elected provincial council:
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;width:60%;"|-! "width="10%" | !! width="22%" | Province !! width="22%" | Capital !! width="46%" | Districts|-| 1 ||
Central Province, Sri Lanka || Kandy ], Matale District, Nuwara Eliya District|-| 2 || North Central Province, Sri Lanka || Anuradhapura ], Polonnaruwa District|-| 3 || Northern Province, Sri Lanka || Jaffna ], Kilinochchi District, Mannar District,
Vavuniya District,
Mullaitivu District|-| 4 ||
Eastern Province, Sri Lanka ||
Trincomalee ],
Batticaloa District,
Trincomalee District|-| 5 || North Western Province, Sri Lanka ||
Kurunegala ], Puttalam District|-| 6 ||
Southern Province, Sri Lanka ||
Galle ],
Hambantota District,
Matara District|-| 7 || Uva Province ||
Badulla ],
Moneragala District|-| 8 || Sabaragamuwa Province ||
Ratnapura ], Ratnapura District|-| 9 ||
Western Province, Sri Lanka ||
Colombo ],
Gampaha District, Kalutara District|-|}
The districts are further subdivided into Divisional Secretariats, and these in turn to
Grama Sevaka divisions.
Economy
]In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Sri Lanka became a
plantation economy, famous for its production and export of cinnamon,
rubber and Ceylon tea, which remains a trademark national export. The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade. During World War II, the island hosted important military installations and Allied forces. However, the plantation economy aggravated poverty and
economic inequality. From 1948 to 1977 socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised and a
welfare state established. While the standard of living and literacy improved significantly, the nation's economy suffered from inefficiency,
Smart growth and lack of foreign investment.
From 1977 the UNP government began incorporating privatisation, deregulation and promotion of private enterprise. While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar and other agricultural commodities remains important, the nation has moved steadily towards an industrialised economy with the development of food processing, textiles, telecommunications and finance. By 1996 plantation crops made up only 20% of export, and further declined to 16.8% in 2005 (compared with 93% in 1970), while textiles and garments have reached 63%. The
Gross Domestic Product grew at an average annual rate of 5.5% during the early 1990s, until a drought and a deteriorating security situation lowered growth to 3.8% in 1996. The economy rebounded in 1997-2000, with average growth of 5.3%. The year of 2001 saw the first
recession in the country's history, as a result of power shortages, budgetary problems, the global slowdown, and Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka. Signs of recovery appeared after the 2002 ceasefire. The
Colombo Stock Exchange reported the highest growth in the world for 2003, and today Sri Lanka has the highest per capita income in South Asia.
beach a tourist attractive place.In April 2004, there was a sharp reversal in economic policy after the government headed by Ranil Wickremesinghe of the United National Party was defeated by a coalition made up of Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the leftist-nationalist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna called the
United People's Freedom Alliance. The new government stopped the privatization of
state enterprises and reforms of state
utilities such as power and petroleum, and embarked on a subsidy program called the Rata Perata economic program. Its main theme to support the rural and suburban SMEs and protect the domestic economy from external influences, such as oil prices, the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund.
Transport
Most Sri Lankan cities and towns are connected by the Sri Lanka Railways, the state-run
National Railway operator. The first
Rail tracks was inaugurated on April 26, 1867, linking Colombo with Kandy. The total length of Sri Lankan roads exceeds , with a vast majority of them being paved. The government has launched several highway projects to bolster the economy and national Transport network, including the Colombo-Katunayake Expressway, the Colombo-Kandy (Kadugannawa) Expressway, the Colombo-Padeniya Expressway and the Outer Circular Highway to ease Colombo's
traffic congestion. There are also plans to build a major bridge connecting
Jaffna to the Indian city of Chennai.
The
Ceylon Transport Board is the state-run agency responsible for operating public bus services across the island. Sri Lanka also maintains of inland waterways. It has three deep-water ports at Colombo, Trincomalee and
Galle. There is also a smaller, shallower harbour at Kankesanturai, north of Jaffna. There are twelve paved airports and two unpaved airstrips in the country. SriLankan Airlines is the official
Flag carrier, partly owned and operated by Emirates. It was voted the best airline in South Asia by Skytrax. SriLankan Air Taxi is the smaller, domestic arm of the national carrier, while Expo Aviation and
Lankair are private Airline. The
Bandaranaike International Airport is the country's only international airport, located in Katunayaka, north of Colombo.
Military
Sri Lankan soldiers have taken part in many wars throughout its history, including the
Second Boer War and both World Wars (under the command of the British at the time). In the course of the civil war, the military has been transformed from a ceremonial force to a modern army. Since 2004, Sri Lankan troops have been a part of the UN Peacekeeping in Haiti, which is the country's first major overseas mission.
The military of Sri Lanka is organized into three branches: Sri Lankan Army,
Sri Lankan Navy, and
Sri Lankan Air Force. Since independence, its primary mission has been the targeting of armed groups within the country, most notably engaging in a 25 year long war with the LTTE. The LTTE is proscribed as a terrorist organisation by 32 countries (LTTE#Proscription as a terrorist group).
Demographics
Sri Lanka is the 53rd most populated nation in the world, with an annual population growth rate of 0.79%. Sri Lanka has a birth rate of 15.63 births per 1,000 people and a
Mortality rate of 6.49 deaths per 1,000 people. Population density is the greatest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around Colombo. There is a small population on the island of the
Wanniyala-Aetto people, also known as
Veddahs. These are believed to be the oldest and indigenous ethnic group to inhabit the island. The
Sinhalese people form the largest ethnic group in the nation, composing approximately 81.9% of the total population. Tamils are concentrated in the North, East, Central and Western Province, Sri Lanka of the country. Tamils who were brought as indentured labourers from India by British colonists to work on estate plantations, nearly 50% of whom were repatriation following independence in 1948, are called "Indian Origin" Tamils. They are distinguished from the native Tamil population that has resided in Sri Lanka since ancient times. According to 2001 census data Indian Tamils makeup 5.1% of the Sri Lankan population and, Sri Lankan Tamils 4.3%. Though this figure only accounted for Sri Lankan Tamils in government-controlled areas, not accounting for those in rebel-held territories. There is a significant population (8.0%) of Sri Lankan Moors, who trace their lineage to
Arab traders and immigrants from the Middle East. Their presence is concentrated in the cities and the central and eastern provinces. There are also small ethnic groups such as the
Burgher people (of mixed European descent) and
Malay race from Southeast Asia.
.
Sinhalese language and
Tamil language are the two
official languages of Sri Lanka. English language is spoken by approximately 10% of the population, and is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the Burgher community speak variant forms of
Portuguese Creole and
Dutch language with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of creole
Sri Lanka Malay that is unique to the island. Sri Lanka also enjoys significant religious diversity. Approximately 69% of Sri Lankans are adherents of Buddhism.
Theravada Buddhism is the predominant school, with distinctive sects such as
Ramanna Nikaya,
Amarapura Nikaya and
Siam Nikaya being widely followed.
Sri Lankan Buddhism has been deeply influenced by indigenous faiths and traditions, as well as the influences of prevailing Buddhist schools in South East Asia. The ancient and famous
Sri Dalada Maligawa or "Temple of the Tooth" is the principal
Buddhist Temple in Sri Lanka, and by tradition houses the Tooth of
Buddha. It is visited every year by millions of pilgrims. There are many other famous religious institutions in Sri Lanka that attract many visitors daily.
Hinduism is practiced by 7.9% of the population, mainly from the Tamil community.
Christianity is practiced by 7% of the population, especially by
Burgher people though most Christians are Sinhalese or Tamils. While most Sri Lankan Christians are
Catholics, there are also significant numbers who adhere to Dutch Reformed Church and the
Anglican Communion.
Islam in Sri Lanka is practiced by 8.5% of the population and its adherents are almost entirely Sri Lankan Moors and
Malay race.
Culture and arts
The island is the home of two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centered in the ancient cities of Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centered in the city of Jaffna). In more recent times a British colonial culture was added, and lately Sri Lanka, particularly in the
urban areas, has experienced a dramatic makeover in the western mold. Until recently, for example, most Sri Lankans, certainly those in the villages, have eaten traditional food, engaged in traditional crafts and expressed themselves through traditional arts. But economic growth and intense economic competition in
Developed country has spilled over to most of Sri Lanka, producing changes that might variously be identified as progress, westernisation or a loss of identity and assimilation.
Traditional food
.Sri Lankans have added western influences to the customary diet such as
rice and curry, pittu (mixture of fresh rice meal, very lightly roasted and mixed with fresh grated coconut, then steamed in a bamboo mould). Kiribath (cooked in thick coconut cream for this unsweetened rice-pudding which is accompanied by a sharp chili relish called "lunumiris"), wattalapam (rich pudding of Malay origin made of coconut milk, jaggery,
Cashew, eggs, and various spices including cinnamon cloves and nutmeg), kottu, and hopper (food) ("appa"), batter cooked rapidly in a hot curved pan, accompanied by eggs, milk or savouries. Sri Lankan food also has Dutch and Portuguese influences, with the island's Burgher community preserving this culture through traditional favourites such as Lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), Breudher (Dutch Christmas cake) and Bolo Fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).
Festivals
Sinhala and Tamil New Year Festival Every year on April 13th Sinhala and Tamil people celebrate, and Muslims celebrate
Ramasan.
Esala Perahera (A-suh-luh peh-ruh-ha-ruh) is the grand festival of Esala held in Sri Lanka. It is very grand with elegant costumes. Happening in July or August in Kandy, it has become a unique symbol of Sri Lanka. It is a Buddhist festival consisting of dances and richly-decorated elephants. There are fire-dances, whip-dances, Kandian dances and various other cultural dances. The elephants are usually adorned with lavish garments. The festival ends with the traditional 'diya-kepeema'. The elephant is paraded around the city bearing the tooth of
Buddha.
Cinema
1947Sri Lankan cinema in past years has featured subjects such as family relationships, love stories and the years of conflict between the military and
Tamil Tiger rebels. Many films are in the
Sinhalese language and the Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar to Indian cinema.
The first film to be produced and shown in Sri Lanka was Kadawunu Poronduwa (film) (The Broken Promise) which was released in 1947. The first colour film of Sri Lanka was
Ran Muthu Doova.
Afterwards there were many Sinhalese movies produced in Sri Lanka and some of them, such as Nidhanaya, received several international film awards. The most influential filmmaker in the history of Sri Lankan cinema is Lester James Peiris who has directed many movies of excellent quality which led to global acclaim. His latest film, 'Wekanda Walawwa' (Mansion by the Lake) became the first movie to be submitted from Sri Lanka for the Best Foreign Language film award at the
Academy Awards. In 2005 the director
Vimukthi Jayasundara became the first Sri Lankan to win the prestigious Camera d’Or award for Best First Film, or any award for that matter, at the
Cannes Film Festival for his Sinhalese language film
Sulanga Enu Pinisa (The Forsaken Land). Controversial filmmaker
Asoka Handagama's films are considered by many in the Sri Lankan film world to be the best films of honest response to the ethnic conflict currently raging in the country.
Prasanna Vithanage is one of Sri Lanka's most notable filmmakers. His films have won many awards, both local and international. Recent releases like 'Sooriya Arana', 'Samanala thatu', and 'Hiripoda wessa' have attracted Sri Lankans to cinemas. Sri Lankan films are usually in the Sinhalese language. Tamil language movies are also filmed in Sri Lanka but they are not part of Kollywood which is Indian Tamil cinema. However some Kollywood films are based in Sri Lanka as well.
Music
The earliest music came from the theater at a time when the traditional open-air drama (referred to in Sinhalese language as
Kolam,
Sokari and
Nadagam). In 1903 the first music album,
Nurthi, was released through
Radio Ceylon. Also
Vernon Corea introduced Sri Lankan music in the English Service of Radio Ceylon.
In the early 1960s, Indian music in films greatly influenced Sri Lankan music and laterSri Lankan stars like
Sunil Shantha found greater popularity among Indian people. By 1963, Radio Ceylon had more Indian listeners than Sri Lankan ones. The notable songwriters Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon made a Sri Lankan music revolution. At the peak of this revolution, musicians such as
W. D. Amaradeva, H.R. Jothipala, Milton Mallawarachchi, M.S. Fernando,
Annesley Malewana and Clarence Wijewardene did great work.
Religions
, Jaffna is an important place for Hindus in Sri LankaSri Lanka has a multi ethnic and multi religious population. Buddhism constitutes the religious faith of about 70% of the population of the island,{{cite web | date = | url =https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ce.html | title = The World Factbook: Sri Lanka | work = CIA World Factbook | accessdate = 2006-08-12 --> most of whom follow the Theravada school of Buddhism. According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles, Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by Venerable
Mahinda, the son of the Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of Sri Lanka's King
Devanampiyatissa. During this time, a sapling of the Bodhi Tree under which
the Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka and the first monasteries were established under the sponsorship of the Sri Lankan king. The Pali Canon (
Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BC. Theravada Buddhism and Shan/Thai/Dai/Laos Regions, Maung Chan, 2005-03-28
Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any Buddhist nation, Buddhism in Sri Lanka,
Buddhist Studies with the
Sangha having existed in a largely unbroken lineage since its introduction in the 2nd century BCE. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with
Thailand and
Burma. Periods of
Mahayana influence, as well as official neglect under colonial rule, created great challenges for Theravada Buddhist institutions in Sri Lanka, but repeated revivals and resurgences — most recently in the 19th century — have kept the Theravada tradition alive for over 2000 years.
Followers of
Islam comprise approximately eight percent of the population, having been brought to the island by
Arab traders over the course of many centuries. Lankan Muslims' historical links with India,
Indian Muslims, April 3, 2006 Hinduism was primarily established in Sri Lanka by migrants and often invaders from southern India, Hinduism In Sri Lanka,
Discover Sri Lanka and Hindus now constitute seven percent of the population, mostly of the Shaivite school. European colonists introduced Christianity to the country in the 16th century,Young, R. F., & Sēnānāyaka, J. E. B. (1998),
The carpenter-heretic: a collection of Buddhist stories about Christianity from 18th century Sri Lanka, Colombo: Karunaratne & Sons. and the religion has been adopted by around six percent of the population.
Religion plays an important part in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days, once per month according to the
Lunar calendar. The
Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. There are many
Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka and many
mosques,
Hindu temples and churches across the island, especially in areas where respective communities are concentrated. Buddhists are distributed across most parts of the island except in the north. Hindus are concentrated in north, east, and central high lands. Christians, particularly
Roman Catholics are mainly concentrated along the western coastal belt.
Muslims are concentrated in several pockets along the coast and i
{{Infobox Country or territory|native_name =
இலங்கை ஜனநாயக சமத்துவ குடியரசு|conventional_long_name = Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka|common_name = Sri Lanka|image_flag = Flag of Sri Lanka.svg|image_coat = COA of Sri Lanka.svg|image_map = LocationSriLanka.png|national_motto =|national_anthem = "
Sri Lanka Matha" , ], Tamil language|capital =
Sri Jayawardenapura|latd=6 |latm=54 |latNS=N |longd=79 |longm=54 |longEW=E|largest_city =
Colombo [Republic|leader_name1 = [Mahinda Rajapaksa|leader_name2 = [Ratnasiri Wickremanayake|sovereignty_note = from the [United Kingdom|established_date1 = [February 4 1948|established_date2 = [May 22 1972-->|percent_water = 4.4|population_estimate = 19,668,000Department of Census and Statistics Estimated mid year population by sex and age, 2003 - 2005|population_estimate_rank = 52nd|population_estimate_year = 2005|population_census = 18,732,255|population_census_year = 2001|population_density_km2 = 310|population_density_sq_mi = 818 |currency_code = LKR|country_code = LKA|time_zone =|utc_offset = +5:30|time_zone_DST =|utc_offset_DST =|cctld = .lk: , ; known as
Ceylon before 1972) is an [island nation in South Asia, located about 31 kilometers (18½
mile) off the southern coast of India. Popularly referred to as the
Pearl of the Indian Ocean,
Pearl of the Indian Ocean, The Sunday Tribune
it is home to around twenty million people.Due to its location in the path of major sea routes, Sri Lanka is a strategic naval link between West Asia and
South East Asia, and has been a center of Buddhism religion and culture from Ancient history. Today, the country is a multi-religious and multi-ethnic nation, with a quarter of the population following faiths other than Buddhism, notably Hinduism,
Christianity and Islam. The Sinhalese people community forms the majority of the population, with
Tamils, who are mostly concentrated in the north and east of the island, forming the largest Minority group. Other communities include the Muslim Sri Lankan Moors and Malay race as well as Burgher people.
Famous for the production and export of
tea,
coffee, rubber and coconuts, Sri Lanka boasts a progressive and modern industrial economy. The natural beauty of Sri Lanka's
tropical forests, beaches and landscape, as well as its rich
cultural heritage, make it a world famous
tourism destination.
After over two thousand years of rule by local kingdoms, parts of Sri Lanka were colonized by
Portugal and the
Netherlands beginning in the 16th century, before the control of the entire country was ceded to the British Empire in 1815. During World War II Sri Lanka served as an important base for Allies in the fight against the Empire of Japan.British Prime Minister Winston Churchill described the moment a Japanese fleet prepared to invade Sri Lanka as "the most dangerous and distressing moment of the entire conflict." -
Commonwealth Air Training Program Museum, The Saviour of Ceylon A
Sri Lanka Independence Struggle arose in the country in the early 20th century, with the aim of obtaining political independence, which was eventually granted by the British after peaceful negotiations in 1948. Since then Sri Lanka has enjoyed a stable democracy"
..Regarding human rights and humanitarian issues, despite the ongoing conflict, Sri Lanka is a fully functioning, stable democracy with strong democratic institutions and traditions, including freedom of the press. The November 2005 presidential election was deemed by international monitors to be free and fair, although an LTTE boycott of the elections prevented voters in LTTE-controlled areas from going to the polls.." -
United States Department of State, Internal Unrest in South Asia: Recent Developments in Nepal and Sri Lanka and continuous
economic progress,"
..With an income per head of $1,350, almost twice India's, it is a bright star of South Asian development. Its economy grew by an average of 5% during the 1990s, even as the war raged. It grew by around 7% last year, when the war was re-ignited after an unprecedented three-year pause. And this growth also came despite the devastating tsunami of December 2004, in which 35,000 Sri Lankans died. What is more, Sri Lanka is an unusually delightful war-torn country. Half a million tourists last year (2006) are a sign of that.." - The Economist, A war strange as fiction"
..The recent escalation in fighting in Sri Lanka has not derailed the nation’s economy, with the island on track to record its fastest growth in nearly three decades.." -
AFP, Sri Lanka set for record growth despite conflict despite the ongoing
Sri Lankan Civil War with a separatist militant group known as the
LTTE in northeastern parts of the country.
Name
In ancient times, Sri Lanka
Geographical renaming by a variety of names: ancient Greek geographers called it
Taprobane and Arabs referred to it as
Serendib (the origin of the word "
serendipity").
Ceilão was the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived on the island in 1505, which was transliterated into English as
Ceylon. In 1972, the official name of the country was changed to "
Freedom (philosophy),
Sovereignty and Independent (nation) Republic of Sri Lanka" (in
Sinhala language śrī laṃkā, ; whereas the island itself is referred to as ලංකාව
laṃkāva, , in
Tamil language இலங்கை
ilaṅkai, ). In 1978 it was changed to "Democratic Socialism Republic of Sri Lanka".
The current name is derived from
Sanskrit word
laṃkā, meaning "resplendent land", which was also the name of the island as described in the ancient Indian epics
Mahabharata and the
Ramayana.
History
fresco.
Paleolithic human settlements have been discovered at excavations in several cave sites in the Western Plains region and the South-western face of the Central Hills region. anthropologys believe that some discovered burial rites and certain decorative artifacts exhibit similarities between the first inhabitants of the island and the early inhabitants of South India. Recent bioanthropological studies have however dismissed these links, and have placed the origin of the people to the northern parts of India. One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana, which described the emperor Ravana as monarch of the powerful kingdom of
Lanka, which was created by the divine sculptor
Vishwakarma for Kubera, the treasurer of the Gods.{{cite book | last = Keshavadas
| first = Sant
| authorlink = Sant Keshavadas
| title = Ramayana at a Glance
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass
| year = 1988
| isbn = 8120805453
--> English historian James Emerson Tennent also theorized
Galle, a southern city in Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of
Tarshish from which King Solomon is said to have drawn ivory, peacocks and other valuables. The main written accounts of the country's history are the
Buddhist chronicles of
Mahavansa and
Dipavamsa.
The earliest-known inhabitants of the island now known as Sri Lanka were probably the ancestors of the Wanniyala-Aetto people, also known as
Veddahs and numbering roughly 3,000. Linguistic analysis has found a correlation of the
Sinhalese language with the languages of the
Sindh and Gujarat, although most historians believe that the Sinhala community emerged well after the assimilation of various
ethnic groups. From the ancient period date some remarkable archaeological sites including the ruins of Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", and huge public works. Among the latter are large "tanks" or
reservoir (water)s, important for conserving water in a climate that alternates rainy seasons with dry times, and elaborate
aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile. Ancient Sri Lanka was also the first in the world to have established a dedicated hospital in
Mihintale in the 4th century BCE. Ancient Sri Lanka was also the world's leading exporter of
cinnamon, which was exported to Egypt as early as 1400
Common Era. Sri Lanka was also the first Asian nation to have a female ruler in
Queen Anula (47–42 BC)
Since ancient times Sri Lanka was ruled by monarchs, most notably of the Sinha royal dynasty that lasted over 2000 years. The island was also infrequently invaded by South Indian kingdoms and parts of the island were ruled intermittently by the
Chola dynasty, the
Pandya dynasty, the
Chera dynasty and the
Pallava dynasty. The island was also invaded by the kingdoms of
Kalinga (India) (modern Orissa) and those from the Malay Peninsula. Buddhism arrived from India in the 3rd century BCE, brought by Bhikkhu Mahinda, who is believed to have been the son of Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Mahinda's mission won over the Sinhalese monarch Devanampiyatissa of Mihintale, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population. The Buddhist kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of Schools of Buddhism and monasteries, and support the propagation of Buddhism into Southeast Asia.
Sri Lanka had always been an important port and trading post in the ancient world, and was increasingly frequented by
Cargo ship from the Middle East,
Persia, Burma,
Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia. The islands were known to the first European explorers of
South Asia and settled by many groups of Arab and Malay merchants. A
Portugal colonial mission arrived on the island in 1505 headed by the
Lourenço de Almeida the son of
Francisco de Almeida. At that point the island consisted of three kingdoms, namely Kandy in the central hills, Kotte at the Western coast, and Yarlpanam (Anglicised Jaffna) in the north. The Dutch East India Company arrived in the 17th century. Although much of the island came under the domain of European powers, the interior, hilly region of the island remained independent, with its capital in Kandy. The British East India Company established control of the island in 1796, declaring it a
crown colony in 1802, although the island would not be officially connected with British India. The fall of the kingdom of Kandy in 1815 unified the island under British rule.
European colonists established a series of tea, cinnamon,
rubber, sugar, coffee and
indigo plantations. The British also brought a large number of
indentured labour from
Tamil Nadu to work in the plantation economy. The city of
Colombo was established as the administrative centre, and the British established modern schools, colleges, roads and churches that brought Western-style education and culture to the Indigenous peoples. Increasing grievances over the denial of
civil rights, mistreatment and abuse of natives by colonial authorities gave rise to a
Sri Lanka Independence Struggle in the 1930s, when the Youth Leagues opposed the "Ministers' Memorandum," which asked the colonial authority to increase the powers of the board of ministers without granting popular representation or civil freedoms. During World War II, the island served as an important Allied
military base. A large segment of the British and American fleet were deployed on the island, as were tens of thousands of soldiers committed to the war against Japan in Southeast Asia.
Following the war, popular pressure for independence intensified. On February 4,
1948 the country won its independence as the Commonwealth of Ceylon. Don Stephen Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Sri Lanka. In 1972, the country became a
republic within the Commonwealth, and the name was changed to Sri Lanka. On July 21,
1960 Sirimavo Bandaranaike took office as prime minister, and became the first female
head of government in post-colonial Asia and the first female prime minister in the world. The island enjoyed good relations with the United Kingdom and had the Royal Navy stationed at Trincomalee.
Since 1983, there has been on-and-off Sri Lankan Civil War, predominantly between the
Government of Sri Lanka and the
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE, also known as the Tamil Tigers), a
Separatism militant organization who fight to create an
Independence state named
Tamil Eelam in the
Northern Province, Sri Lanka and Eastern Province, Sri Lanka of the island.
Geography and climate
The island of Sri Lanka lies in the Indian Ocean, to the southwest of the Bay of Bengal and to the southeast of the Arabian Sea. It is separated from the Indian subcontinent by the
Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait.
BBC News, Gods row minister offers to quit, September 15, 2007 According to Hindu mythology, a
land bridge to the Indian mainland, known as
Rama's Bridge, was constructed during the time of Rama by the
vanara architect
Nala. Often referred to as Adam's Bridge, it now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above
sea level. According to colonial British reports, this is a natural
causeway which was formerly complete, but was breached by a
Violent Storm in 1480.
Rediff, Ramar Sethu, a world heritage centre?, July 4, 2007 The width of the Palk Strait is small enough for the coast of Sri Lanka to be visible from the furthest point near the Indian town of
Rameswaram. The pear-shaped island consists mostly of flat-to-rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. Amongst these are Sri Pada (Adams Peak) and the highest point
Pidurutalagala, at 2,524 meters (8,281 ft). The
Mahaweli ganga (Mahaweli river) and other major rivers provide fresh water to the population. -->
Sri Lanka's climate can be described as tropical, and quite hot. Its position between 5 and 10 north latitude endows the country with a warm climate, moderated by ocean winds and considerable moisture.
BBC Weather'\, Country Guide: Sri LankaThe mean temperature ranges from a low of in
Nuwara Eliya in the Central Highlands (where frost may occur for several days in the winter) to a high of in Trincomalee on the northeast coast (where temperatures may reach ). The average yearly temperature for the country as a whole ranges from 28° to 30 °C (82–86 °F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 4 to 7 °C (7–13 °F). In January, the coolest month, many people wear coats and sweaters in the highlands and elsewhere. May, the hottest period, precedes the summer monsoon rains. The rainfall pattern is influenced by the monsoon winds of the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, which encounter the slopes of the Central Highlands, they unload heavy rains on the mountain slopes and the southwestern sector of the island. Some of the windward slopes receive up to of rain per month, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes
tropical cyclones bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Between December to March, monsoon winds come from the northeast, bringing moisture from the Bay of Bengal. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall. At Colombo, for example, daytime humidity stays above 70% all year, rising to almost 90 percent during the
Monsoon in June. Anuradhapura experiences a daytime low of 60% during the monsoon month of March, but a high of 79% during the November and December rains. In the highlands, Kandy's daytime humidity usually ranges between 70 and 79%.
Flora and fauna
The mountains and the southwestern part of the country, known as the "wet zone," receive ample rainfall (an annual average of 2500 millimetres). Most of the southeast, east, and northern parts of the country comprise the "dry zone," which receives between 1200 and 1900 mm (47–75 in) of rain annually. Much of the rain in these areas falls from October to January; during the rest of the year there is very little precipitation, and all living creatures must conserve precious moisture. The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain — 600 to 1200 mm (24–47 in) per year — However, though many say that there are no really dry areas in Sri Lanka, there are many pockets of very dry and abandoned areas where there is little to no rainwater. Varieties of flowering acacias are well adapted to the arid conditions and flourish on the
Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry-land forests are some valuable species, such as
satinwood, ebony, ironwood, and
mahogany. In the wet zone, the dominant vegetation of the lowlands is a tropical evergreen forest, with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers.
Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of Temperate flourish in the higher altitudes. Forests at one time covered nearly the entire island, but by the late 20th century lands classified as forests and forest reserves covered around one-third of the land.
EarthTrends, Environmental Information, Forests, Grasslands, and Drylands-- Sri Lanka As the area covered by forests declined, thereby threatening various species of wildlife, Sri Lanka became the first country in the world to establish a wildlife sanctuary.
Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society, Among them, the Ruhunu National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks, and the Wilpattu National park in the northwest preserves the habitats of many water birds, such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. During the Mahaweli Ganga Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totaling as national parks. The island has three
biosphere reserves, Hurulu,
Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve, and the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya.
The national flower of Sri Lanka is Nil Manel (
Nymphaea stelleta),
Government of Sri Lanka Official Web Portal, National Flower the national tree is Na (tree) (
Mesua nagassarium)
Government of Sri Lanka Official Web Portal, National Tree and the national bird is the Sri Lanka Junglefowl, which is
endemic to the country.
Government of Sri Lanka Official Web Portal, National Bird
Government and politics
The
Constitution of Sri Lanka establishes a democratic,
socialist republic in Sri Lanka, which is also a unitary state. The government is a mixture of the presidential system and the
parliamentary system. The President of Sri Lanka is the head of state, the commander in chief of the
Military of Sri Lanka, as well as
head of government, and is popularly elected for a six-year term. In the exercise of duties, the President is responsible to the Parliament of Sri Lanka, which is a
unicameral 225-member
legislature. The President appoints and heads a
cabinet of
Minister (government)s composed of elected
Member of Parliament. The President's deputy is the prime minister of Sri Lanka, who leads the ruling party in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.
Members of parliament are elected by universal (adult) suffrage based on a modified
proportional representation system by district to a six-year term. The primary modification is that, the party that receives the largest number of valid votes in each constituency gains a unique "bonus seat." The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after it has served for one year. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws. On July 1,
1960 the people of Sri Lanka elected the first-ever female head of government in Prime Minister
Sirimavo Bandaranaike. Her daughter
Chandrika Kumaratunga served multiple terms as prime minister and as president from 1999 to 2005. The current president and prime minister, both of whom took office on
November 21,
2005, are Mahinda Rajapaksa and Ratnasiri Wickremanayake respectively.
Sri Lanka has enjoyed the longest period of continuous multi-party
democracy with universal suffrage in a non-western country (since 1931). Politics in Sri Lanka are controlled by rival coalitions led by the left-wing Sri Lanka Freedom Party, headed by President Rajapaksa, the comparatively
right-wing United National Party led by former prime minister Ranil Wickremesinghe and
Marxist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna. There are also many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties that oppose the
separatism of the LTTE but demand
regional autonomy and increased civil rights. Since 1948, Sri Lanka has been a member of the
Commonwealth of Nations and the
United Nations. It is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the Colombo Plan, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. Through the
Cold War-era, Sri Lanka followed a foreign policy of non-alignment but has remained closer to the
United States and Western Europe. The
military of Sri Lanka comprises the Sri Lankan Army, the
Sri Lankan Navy and the
Sri Lankan Air Force. These are administered by the Ministry of Defence (Sri Lanka). Since the 1980s, the army has led the government response against the Marxist militants of the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna and now the LTTE militant forces. Sri Lanka receives considerable military assistance from Pakistan and China .
Administrative divisions
Sri Lanka is divided into 9 Provinces of Sri Lanka
Constitution of Sri Lanka, Eighth Schedule and 25
Districts of Sri Lanka.
Constitution of Sri Lanka, First Schedule Each province is administered by a directly-elected provincial council:
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;width:60%;"|-! "width="10%" | !! width="22%" | Province !! width="22%" | Capital !! width="46%" | Districts|-| 1 || Central Province, Sri Lanka || Kandy ],
Matale District, Nuwara Eliya District|-| 2 || North Central Province, Sri Lanka ||
Anuradhapura ],
Polonnaruwa District|-| 3 ||
Northern Province, Sri Lanka ||
Jaffna ], Kilinochchi District, Mannar District, Vavuniya District,
Mullaitivu District|-| 4 || Eastern Province, Sri Lanka ||
Trincomalee ],
Batticaloa District,
Trincomalee District|-| 5 || North Western Province, Sri Lanka ||
Kurunegala ],
Puttalam District|-| 6 || Southern Province, Sri Lanka ||
Galle ], Hambantota District,
Matara District|-| 7 || Uva Province ||
Badulla ],
Moneragala District|-| 8 ||
Sabaragamuwa Province ||
Ratnapura ],
Ratnapura District|-| 9 || Western Province, Sri Lanka || Colombo ], Gampaha District, Kalutara District|-|}
The districts are further subdivided into Divisional Secretariats, and these in turn to
Grama Sevaka divisions.
Economy
]In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Sri Lanka became a plantation economy, famous for its production and export of cinnamon,
rubber and
Ceylon tea, which remains a trademark national export. The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade. During World War II, the island hosted important military installations and Allied forces. However, the plantation economy aggravated poverty and
economic inequality. From 1948 to 1977 socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised and a welfare state established. While the standard of living and literacy improved significantly, the nation's economy suffered from inefficiency, Smart growth and lack of foreign investment.
From 1977 the UNP government began incorporating
privatisation, deregulation and promotion of private enterprise. While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar and other agricultural commodities remains important, the nation has moved steadily towards an industrialised economy with the development of
food processing,
textiles,
telecommunications and finance. By 1996 plantation crops made up only 20% of export, and further declined to 16.8% in 2005 (compared with 93% in 1970), while textiles and garments have reached 63%. The Gross Domestic Product grew at an average annual rate of 5.5% during the early 1990s, until a drought and a deteriorating security situation lowered growth to 3.8% in 1996. The economy rebounded in 1997-2000, with average growth of 5.3%. The year of 2001 saw the first recession in the country's history, as a result of power shortages, budgetary problems, the global slowdown, and
Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka. Signs of recovery appeared after the 2002 ceasefire. The Colombo Stock Exchange reported the highest growth in the world for 2003, and today Sri Lanka has the highest per capita income in South Asia.
beach a tourist attractive place.In April 2004, there was a sharp reversal in economic policy after the government headed by Ranil Wickremesinghe of the United National Party was defeated by a coalition made up of
Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the leftist-nationalist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna called the
United People's Freedom Alliance. The new government stopped the privatization of state enterprises and reforms of state
utilities such as power and
petroleum, and embarked on a subsidy program called the Rata Perata economic program. Its main theme to support the rural and suburban SMEs and protect the domestic economy from external influences, such as oil prices, the
World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.
Transport
Most Sri Lankan cities and towns are connected by the Sri Lanka Railways, the state-run National Railway operator. The first
Rail tracks was inaugurated on April 26, 1867, linking Colombo with Kandy. The total length of Sri Lankan roads exceeds , with a vast majority of them being paved. The government has launched several highway projects to bolster the economy and national
Transport network, including the Colombo-Katunayake Expressway, the Colombo-Kandy (Kadugannawa) Expressway, the Colombo-Padeniya Expressway and the Outer Circular Highway to ease Colombo's traffic congestion. There are also plans to build a major bridge connecting
Jaffna to the Indian city of Chennai.
The
Ceylon Transport Board is the state-run agency responsible for operating public bus services across the island. Sri Lanka also maintains of inland waterways. It has three deep-water ports at Colombo,
Trincomalee and Galle. There is also a smaller, shallower harbour at Kankesanturai, north of Jaffna. There are twelve paved airports and two unpaved airstrips in the country. SriLankan Airlines is the official Flag carrier, partly owned and operated by Emirates. It was voted the best airline in South Asia by Skytrax. SriLankan Air Taxi is the smaller, domestic arm of the national carrier, while Expo Aviation and Lankair are private
Airline. The Bandaranaike International Airport is the country's only
international airport, located in Katunayaka, north of Colombo.
Military
Sri Lankan soldiers have taken part in many wars throughout its history, including the
Second Boer War and both
World Wars (under the command of the British at the time). In the course of the civil war, the military has been transformed from a ceremonial force to a modern army. Since 2004, Sri Lankan troops have been a part of the UN
Peacekeeping in Haiti, which is the country's first major overseas mission.
The military of Sri Lanka is organized into three branches:
Sri Lankan Army,
Sri Lankan Navy, and
Sri Lankan Air Force. Since independence, its primary mission has been the targeting of armed groups within the country, most notably engaging in a 25 year long war with the
LTTE. The LTTE is proscribed as a terrorist organisation by 32 countries (
LTTE#Proscription as a terrorist group).
Demographics
Sri Lanka is the 53rd most populated nation in the world, with an annual population growth rate of 0.79%. Sri Lanka has a
birth rate of 15.63 births per 1,000 people and a
Mortality rate of 6.49 deaths per 1,000 people. Population density is the greatest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around Colombo. There is a small population on the island of the
Wanniyala-Aetto people, also known as
Veddahs. These are believed to be the oldest and indigenous ethnic group to inhabit the island. The Sinhalese people form the largest ethnic group in the nation, composing approximately 81.9% of the total population. Tamils are concentrated in the North, East, Central and Western Province, Sri Lanka of the country. Tamils who were brought as indentured labourers from India by British colonists to work on estate plantations, nearly 50% of whom were repatriation following independence in 1948, are called "Indian Origin" Tamils. They are distinguished from the native Tamil population that has resided in Sri Lanka since ancient times. According to 2001 census data Indian Tamils makeup 5.1% of the Sri Lankan population and, Sri Lankan Tamils 4.3%. Though this figure only accounted for Sri Lankan Tamils in government-controlled areas, not accounting for those in rebel-held territories. There is a significant population (8.0%) of Sri Lankan Moors, who trace their lineage to
Arab traders and immigrants from the Middle East. Their presence is concentrated in the cities and the central and eastern provinces. There are also small ethnic groups such as the
Burgher people (of mixed European descent) and
Malay race from Southeast Asia.
.
Sinhalese language and
Tamil language are the two official languages of Sri Lanka. English language is spoken by approximately 10% of the population, and is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the Burgher community speak variant forms of
Portuguese Creole and Dutch language with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of creole Sri Lanka Malay that is unique to the island. Sri Lanka also enjoys significant religious diversity. Approximately 69% of Sri Lankans are adherents of Buddhism.
Theravada Buddhism is the predominant school, with distinctive sects such as Ramanna Nikaya,
Amarapura Nikaya and Siam Nikaya being widely followed.
Sri Lankan Buddhism has been deeply influenced by indigenous faiths and traditions, as well as the influences of prevailing Buddhist schools in South East Asia. The ancient and famous Sri Dalada Maligawa or "Temple of the Tooth" is the principal Buddhist Temple in Sri Lanka, and by tradition houses the Tooth of
Buddha. It is visited every year by millions of pilgrims. There are many other famous religious institutions in Sri Lanka that attract many visitors daily.
Hinduism is practiced by 7.9% of the population, mainly from the Tamil community. Christianity is practiced by 7% of the population, especially by
Burgher people though most Christians are Sinhalese or Tamils. While most Sri Lankan Christians are Catholics, there are also significant numbers who adhere to Dutch Reformed Church and the Anglican Communion.
Islam in Sri Lanka is practiced by 8.5% of the population and its adherents are almost entirely Sri Lankan Moors and
Malay race.
Culture and arts
The island is the home of two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centered in the ancient cities of Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centered in the city of Jaffna). In more recent times a British colonial culture was added, and lately Sri Lanka, particularly in the urban areas, has experienced a dramatic makeover in the western mold. Until recently, for example, most Sri Lankans, certainly those in the villages, have eaten traditional food, engaged in traditional crafts and expressed themselves through traditional arts. But
economic growth and intense economic competition in Developed country has spilled over to most of Sri Lanka, producing changes that might variously be identified as progress, westernisation or a loss of identity and assimilation.
Traditional food
.Sri Lankans have added western influences to the customary diet such as
rice and curry, pittu (mixture of fresh rice meal, very lightly roasted and mixed with fresh grated coconut, then steamed in a bamboo mould). Kiribath (cooked in thick coconut cream for this unsweetened rice-pudding which is accompanied by a sharp chili relish called "lunumiris"), wattalapam (rich pudding of Malay origin made of
coconut milk, jaggery, Cashew, eggs, and various spices including cinnamon cloves and nutmeg), kottu, and hopper (food) ("appa"), batter cooked rapidly in a hot curved pan, accompanied by eggs, milk or savouries. Sri Lankan food also has Dutch and Portuguese influences, with the island's Burgher community preserving this culture through traditional favourites such as Lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), Breudher (Dutch Christmas cake) and Bolo Fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).
Festivals
Sinhala and Tamil New Year Festival Every year on April 13th Sinhala and Tamil people celebrate, and Muslims celebrate
Ramasan. Esala Perahera (A-suh-luh peh-ruh-ha-ruh) is the grand festival of Esala held in Sri Lanka. It is very grand with elegant costumes. Happening in July or August in Kandy, it has become a unique symbol of Sri Lanka. It is a Buddhist festival consisting of dances and richly-decorated elephants. There are fire-dances, whip-dances, Kandian dances and various other cultural dances. The elephants are usually adorned with lavish garments. The festival ends with the traditional 'diya-kepeema'. The elephant is paraded around the city bearing the tooth of Buddha.
Cinema
1947Sri Lankan cinema in past years has featured subjects such as family relationships, love stories and the years of conflict between the military and Tamil Tiger rebels. Many films are in the Sinhalese language and the Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar to Indian cinema.
The first film to be produced and shown in Sri Lanka was
Kadawunu Poronduwa (film) (The Broken Promise) which was released in 1947. The first colour film of Sri Lanka was
Ran Muthu Doova.
Afterwards there were many Sinhalese movies produced in Sri Lanka and some of them, such as Nidhanaya, received several international film awards. The most influential filmmaker in the history of Sri Lankan cinema is
Lester James Peiris who has directed many movies of excellent quality which led to global acclaim. His latest film, 'Wekanda Walawwa' (Mansion by the Lake) became the first movie to be submitted from Sri Lanka for the Best Foreign Language film award at the
Academy Awards. In 2005 the director Vimukthi Jayasundara became the first Sri Lankan to win the prestigious Camera d’Or award for Best First Film, or any award for that matter, at the
Cannes Film Festival for his Sinhalese language film
Sulanga Enu Pinisa (The Forsaken Land). Controversial filmmaker
Asoka Handagama's films are considered by many in the Sri Lankan film world to be the best films of honest response to the ethnic conflict currently raging in the country. Prasanna Vithanage is one of Sri Lanka's most notable filmmakers. His films have won many awards, both local and international. Recent releases like 'Sooriya Arana', 'Samanala thatu', and 'Hiripoda wessa' have attracted Sri Lankans to cinemas. Sri Lankan films are usually in the Sinhalese language.
Tamil language movies are also filmed in Sri Lanka but they are not part of Kollywood which is Indian Tamil cinema. However some Kollywood films are based in Sri Lanka as well.
Music
The earliest music came from the theater at a time when the traditional open-air drama (referred to in
Sinhalese language as
Kolam,
Sokari and
Nadagam). In 1903 the first music album,
Nurthi, was released through Radio Ceylon. Also Vernon Corea introduced Sri Lankan music in the English Service of Radio Ceylon.
In the early 1960s, Indian music in films greatly influenced Sri Lankan music and laterSri Lankan stars like
Sunil Shantha found greater popularity among Indian people. By 1963, Radio Ceylon had more Indian listeners than Sri Lankan ones. The notable songwriters
Mahagama Sekara and
Ananda Samarakoon made a Sri Lankan music revolution. At the peak of this revolution, musicians such as
W. D. Amaradeva, H.R. Jothipala, Milton Mallawarachchi, M.S. Fernando, Annesley Malewana and
Clarence Wijewardene did great work.
Religions
, Jaffna is an important place for Hindus in Sri LankaSri Lanka has a multi ethnic and multi religious population. Buddhism constitutes the religious faith of about 70% of the population of the island,{{cite web | date = | url =https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ce.html | title = The World Factbook: Sri Lanka | work = CIA World Factbook | accessdate = 2006-08-12 --> most of whom follow the
Theravada school of Buddhism. According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles, Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by Venerable Mahinda, the son of the Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of Sri Lanka's King Devanampiyatissa. During this time, a sapling of the Bodhi Tree under which
the Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka and the first monasteries were established under the sponsorship of the Sri Lankan king. The Pali Canon (
Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BC. Theravada Buddhism and Shan/Thai/Dai/Laos Regions, Maung Chan, 2005-03-28
Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any Buddhist nation, Buddhism in Sri Lanka,
Buddhist Studies with the
Sangha having existed in a largely unbroken lineage since its introduction in the 2nd century BCE. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma. Periods of Mahayana influence, as well as official neglect under colonial rule, created great challenges for Theravada Buddhist institutions in Sri Lanka, but repeated revivals and resurgences — most recently in the 19th century — have kept the Theravada tradition alive for over 2000 years.
Followers of
Islam comprise approximately eight percent of the population, having been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries. Lankan Muslims' historical links with India,
Indian Muslims, April 3, 2006
Hinduism was primarily established in Sri Lanka by migrants and often invaders from southern India, Hinduism In Sri Lanka,
Discover Sri Lanka and Hindus now constitute seven percent of the population, mostly of the
Shaivite school. European colonists introduced
Christianity to the country in the 16th century,Young, R. F., & Sēnānāyaka, J. E. B. (1998),
The carpenter-heretic: a collection of Buddhist stories about Christianity from 18th century Sri Lanka, Colombo: Karunaratne & Sons. and the religion has been adopted by around six percent of the population.
Religion plays an important part in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The
Buddhist majority observe Poya Days, once per month according to the
Lunar calendar. The Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. There are many
Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka and many
mosques,
Hindu temples and
churches across the island, especially in areas where respective communities are concentrated. Buddhists are distributed across most parts of the island except in the north. Hindus are concentrated in north, east, and central high lands. Christians, particularly
Roman Catholics are mainly concentrated along the western coastal belt.
Muslims are concentrated in several pockets along the coast and i
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